The Education Systems of England and Saudi Arabia Essay - 1

The Education Systems of England and Saudi Arabia - Essay Example Education in England is compulsory under the law. Similarly in Saudi Arabia, education is strongly stressed in the Holy Qur'an and the Hadith [teachings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad] which requires education for every Muslim. In England, the law under Section 7 of the 1996 Education Act states: 'The parent of every child of compulsory school age shall cause him to receive efficient full-time education suitable- (a) to his age, ability and aptitude, and (b) to any special educational needs he may have, either by regular attendance at school or otherwise.' (Barrow, 2007). A large portion of students in England receive support for their education from public funds. Similarly in Saudi Arabia the government extends support towards education to the extent of providing monthly stipend for deserving students. 'The total budget for higher education (universities, women's colleges and the Ministry of Higher Education) was US$2.5 billion in 1985. This amount constitutes 3.6 percent of the total budget for Saudi Arabia, and 34 percent of the total education budget. All university students also receive a monthly stipend of $300 (all figures for 1985).' (Sedgwick, Ed., 2001). Education system in England is structured in 6 different levels. ... All university students also receive a monthly stipend of $300 (all figures for 1985).' (Sedgwick, Ed., 2001). Education system in England is structured in 6 different levels. In Saudi Arabia, the education system is similarly structured by level although with certain apparent disparity with how the system is constituted. 'Over hundred years old, the UK education system is basically structured in six different levels. They are: Pre-school or pre-preparatory education, Preparatory education, Primary education, Secondary education, Post-sixteen education, and Post-eighteen education.' (Indobase Ltd.). Sedgewick (2001) disclosed that primary education consists of primary school and intermediate school; secondary education consists of general secondary education, religious secondary education, technical secondary school and further technical and vocational training; Higher Education; University Higher Education consists of baccaloreus (four year course), darajat al majisteer (master's degree) and doctoorah (doctorate). Educational System in England requires an examination to test the knowledge of students. In Saudi Arabia such an examination is also required. In England, 'At the age of 16, students write an examination called the GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education). All students are tested in Mathematics, English Literature, English composition, chemistry, biology, physics, history or the Classics, one modern language, and one other subject, such as art or computer studies.' (Barrow, 2007). Additionally, the British Council affirmed and posted 'After five years of secondary education, students take examinations in a range of subjects at the level of General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The GCSE is a single-subject examination set and

What is meant by Project Planning and why we need a detailed project Essay

What is meant by Project Planning and why we need a detailed project plan for every project - Essay Example The present study would focus on project planning as an essential part of project management. It refers to the use of specialised tools such as Gantt Charts in order to plan and monitor the progress of a project. The use of project planning ensures that the project environment is stewarded continuously so that any known and unknown risks are monitored and dealt with in order to optimise the project cost and schedule. Typically, project planning begins with the definition of project scope. This ensures that fitting methods are determined in order to take the project to completion. Once project scope is well defined, the next step is to define activity structure. The various tasks required to execute the project are listed down as activities and the estimated time for these activities is listed down. These activities are grouped together and the resulting structure is known as the work breakdown structure (WBS). The WBS provides a fitting insight to how various tasks and activities are fitted together in terms of their dependencies on each other. Generally, the WBS tasks and activities are defined through the use of an activity network diagram. This tool allows the determination of the critical path which in turn provides information regarding: - all activities and tasks needed to complete the project that are arranged within a WBS; - the duration of time required to complete these activities and tasks; - the various kinds of dependencies between various tasks and activities. ... This optimisation is carried out in order to comply with the overall project goals and objectives. This process is known as resource levelling and it is carried out to ensure that all activities and tasks are carried out with the optimal use of resources and time. When resource levelling is carried out, the formed plan is known as the baseline. As the project proceeds, the baseline is used to compare the status of physical activities on ground with the agreed objectives. Generally, the baseline is used throughout the entire project life to both monitor and steward progress. The process used to compare actual progress to the baseline is better known as earned value management (Fleming, 2005). The major inputs required for the project-planning phase include the concept proposal as well as the project charter while the outputs are the project requirements, the project management plan and the project schedule. These inputs and outputs are used in tandem and may be revised as the project proceeds. Most projects that are executed are unique in nature and so entail unique requirements. This requires that projects are planned individually and executed accordingly including any changes that may be required as the project proceeds. 2. Need for Project Planning Planning is required for all sorts of processes that have economic value in order to ensure that these processes are competitive. The lack of planning lends credence to the fact that execution would be inefficient and would cost more than usual. In addition, projects are generally unique by their intrinsic design so that the tasks and activities are differentiated from one project to the other. When projects are being

Innovation in strategy

Innovation in strategy This essay evaluates the role of innovation in strategy, and explores the ways management can promote it in organisations. It first looks at the nature of innovation, and examines its importance in current economic and social conditions. It then sets strategy in context, defining it primarily in terms of competitive advantage that is, as a search for capabilities which allow allows an organisation to meet consumers needs better than its rivals. It then investigates why, exactly, innovation is often seen as a key component of strategy. It comes up with two key reasons: its capacity to generate a sustainable competitive advantage for business organisations; and its ability to aid organisations in preventing strategic drift. As a result of these benefits, strategies which are centred upon innovation can add real value to an organisations value proposition, and consequently can substantially improve business performance. The essay then turns to look at the ways that management can promo te innovation in organisations. For this, it turns to the worlds most famous management thinker Peter Drucker and the worlds most innovative company Apple Inc. for guidance on theory and practice respectively. Having thus established the importance of the role of innovation for strategy, and the ways in which management can promote it in organisations, the essay then considers some limitations. In particular, it looks at the possible advantages of strategic drift; and also the other aspects of strategy beyond innovation which must be considered by an organisation. The essay thus concludes that innovation is a necessary component of a successful strategy in that it is able to generate a sustainable competitive advantage for a business but that it is not sufficient in and of itself: an organisation must consider more than innovation if it is to develop an effective strategy. Innovation is usually defined as ‘the successful commercial exploitation of new ideas or simply as ‘the successful implementation of new ideas. This encompasses ideas that are ‘new to the world, ‘new to an industry or merely ‘new to a particular firm (Gabriel, 2008, p. 146). The prominence given to the role of innovation in strategy is to a large extent the result of the prevailing social and economic conditions. In what Peter Drucker the most influential management thinker of the second-half of the twentieth century termed the ‘knowledge economy that has emerged due to the rise of the service industry and decline of manufacturing since the end of the Second World War, business organisations have increasingly had to react to change more rapidly if they wish to succeed in the marketplace (Drucker, 1992, p. 263). Indeed, so important is the successful implementation of new ideas that Drucker famously reflected that: ‘Business has only two bas ic functions marketing and innovation (Kotler Armstrong, 2008, p. 40). In other words, a business organisation must first create a customer, but consequently that business must constantly adapt to provide the necessary goods and services to keep them making a profit: they must pursue innovation both to survive and to thrive. Having explored the nature of innovation, it is useful now to define what is meant by ‘strategy, and examine briefly why it matters. The nature of strategy has traditionally been a contentious issue. A helpful starting point for understanding the concept is found in Anthony Henrys (2008) Understanding Strategic Management, where he provides a synopsis of forty years of heated debate on the issue. He first outlines that, ‘there is agreement that the role of strategy is to achieve competitive advantage for an organisation. He then continues: ‘Competitive advantage may usefully be thought of as that which allows an organisation to meet consumers needs better than its rivals . . . [and] its source may derive from a number of factors including its products or services, its culture, its technological know-how, and its processes (Henry, 2008, p. 4). It is an important issue for a business because a strategy which can enable a sustainable competitive advantage will allow an organisation to generate super-normal returns, and will have a distinct impact on overall organisational performance: an effective strategy can add value (Kay, 1995). Herein lies the essence of the role of innovation in strategy it is often a key component of a sustainable competitive advantage. For instance, Grant (2005, p. 513) has observed from empirical evidence based on such successful companies as 3M, Wal-Mart, and Toyota that, ‘ultimately, the only sustainable competitive advantage is the ability to create new sources of competitive advantage. Firms with a fixed commitment to innovation seem to prosper in the modern ‘knowledge economy. For instance, Apple a company which this essay examines in more depth below has become synonymous with strategic innovation. In Fortunes Americas Most Admired Companies 2008, Apple topped the chart. A senior commentator reflected on this development with the following remark: Apple not only takes the No. 1 slot on this years list of Americas Most Admired Companies but also tops the global survey and wins the highest marks for innovation too. Thats probably no coincidence. In an industry that changes every nanosecond, the 32-year-old company has time and again innovated its way out of the doldrums. Rivals always seem to be playing catch-up. (Fisher, 2008) Moreover, innovation can be key to preventing ‘strategic drift. Strategic drift is the tendency for strategies to develop incrementally on the basis of historical and cultural influences but to fail to keep pace with a changing environment (Johnson, Scholes, Whittington, 2008, p. 179). This is what happened to Sainsburys who were one of the most successful food retailers in the world until the early 1990s, using a tried-and-tested formula of selling high quality food at reasonable prices. Its strategy consisted of gradually extending its product lines, enlarging its stores, and expanding its geographical coverage; but under no circumstances would it deviate from its traditional ways of doing business (Johnson, Scholes, Whittington, 2008, p. 179). However, during Sainsburys period of strategic drift, its rival Tesco followed a policy of ruthless innovation developing Club-Card marketing, building a successful on-line retailing capability, and implementing new ideas to radica lly reduce its distribution costs (IMD, 2008). By having a strategy centred on innovation, therefore, Tesco was able to both establish a competitive advantage and avoid strategic drift. It was, in short, able to develop a strategy which added value, and which made the business organisation much more profitable. So where can business organisations look for innovation how can they promote it more effectively? Peter Drucker has suggested that there are seven areas where companies should look for such opportunities. These have been expertly surmised by Hindle (2008, p. 105), as being: ‘the unexpected success that is rarely dissected to see how it has occurred; any incongruity between what actually happens and what was expected to happen; any inadequacy in a business process that is taken for granted; a change in industry or market structure that takes everyone by surprise; demographic changes caused by things like wars, migrations or medical developments (such as the birth-control pill); changes in perception and fashion brought about by changes in the economy; and changes in awareness caused by new knowledge. Moreover, although it is often the case that ‘innovation has been used interchangeably with the term â€Å"creativity† (Forrester 1993, p. 3; cited in Thompson McHugh , 2002, p. 255), Drucker insists that this ought never to limit a business, claiming that: ‘There are more ideas in any organization, including businesses, than can possibly be put to use (Drucker, 1964, p. 188). Across the literature on innovation, there seems to be a general agreement with this approach set out above: that the opportunities for innovation are multitudinous, and that by paying attention to such factors organisations can develop strategies which can lead to a sustainable competitive advantage and prevent strategic drift. A brief case-study of Apple will help demonstrate how this theory outlined above works in practice, and help us to better understand the ways management can promote innovation in organisations. First, Apple appreciates that innovation is an inexact science: as the CEO and cofounder of Apple, Steve Jobs, puts it: ‘You cant ask people what they want if its around the next corner rather you have to simply provide what you think they might want (Morris, 2008). To guide them, Apple looks to the areas mentioned by Drucker above to gain insights into such potential needs and wants. Apple employees in particular focus on the inadequacies in every-day technology processes that are currently taken for granted, and innovate in these areas. New-product development, according to Apple sources, occurs as a result of conversations such as: ‘What do we hate? (Our cellphones.) What do we have the technology to make? (A cellphone with a Mac inside.) What would we like to own? (You guessed it, an iPhone) (Morris, 2008). Moreover, at Apple, innovation is centred on producing technology the employees really want: as Jobs says, ‘One of the keys to [innovation at] Apple is that we build products that really turn us on (Morris, 2008). This results in an organisation thoroughly committed to the successful commercial exploitation of new ideas at a strategic, operational and tactical level. Indeed Morris (2008), observing the culture of innovation at Apple, has pointed out that: ‘You wont find that word on a placard or a piece of propaganda at One Infinite Loop, Apples headquarters . . . there innovation is a way of life. It is this culture that ‘provides the push to overcome design and engineering obstacles, [and] to bring projects in on time (Morris, 2008). Thus a commitment to a strategy of innovation should foster a culture which reflects this aim of management, as this can lead to the organisation innovating more effectively. Finally, it is important to note the impact of a strategy centred on innovation upon the performance of Apple. It has astounded commentators with one perplexed writer asking: ‘who knew [Apple] could build a . . . [successful] company on the strength of a portable jukebox and a computer with a single-digit market share? (Elmer-DeWitt, 2008). Indeed, the company has been monetarily hugely successful as a result of the innovation it has pioneered. In the 5 years ending in March 2008, sales of Apple wares tripled to $24 billion; and profits rose to $3.5 billion, from a mere $42 million only five years before. Morris (2008) sums up the position of Apple thus: [It] set the gold standard for corporate America with an entirely new business model: creating a brand, morphing it, and reincarnating it to thrive in a disruptive age. . . Apple has demonstrated how to create real, breathtaking growth by dreaming up products so new and ingenious that they have upended one industry after another: consumer electronics, the record industry, the movie industry, video and music production. Thus innovation can play a key role in an organisations strategy, and it can often be effectively promoted by following the theory of Drucker and the practices of Apple. Nevertheless, it is important to note that there are limitations on the role of innovation in strategy. First, ‘strategic drift may not be such a bad thing after all. This is a view outlined by John Kay (2009) in his article History vindicates the science of muddling through. He contrasts the views of the American political scientist Charles Lindblom (published in 1959) with those of Dr H. Igor Ansoff. Lindblom supported a view of incremental adaptation by organisations to changes in their environment; Ansoff proposed a design-orientated, purposive approach to strategy. However, Kay then points that in terms of the organisational case-studies used to support each view Saint-Gobain for Lindbolm; the US conglomerates TRW and Litton for Ansoff the clear winner emerges as Saint-Gobain, a company which adopted a q uasi-strategic drift approach to their strategy, which is still going strong while the other companies have suffered catastrophic failure. Thus, it seems that sometimes simply ‘muddling through can constitute an effective strategy perhaps a firm commitment to innovation is not necessary after all. Moreover, innovation is not the sole component of an effective strategy, and it never can be. Organisations must consider a range of other issues. For instance, business organisations ought to consider issues highlighted by Michael Porters ‘Five Forces model. This shows how the strategic situation of a company can be established by investigating the power of suppliers, the power of buyers, the threat of substitution, the threat of new entrants, as well as the degree of competitive rivalry between the industrys firms. An organisation must consider innovation if it is to ensure that it continues to have an effective strategy in the medium to long term, but it must also pay attention to these other aspects of strategy innovation is necessary, but it is not sufficient. Thus innovation is a necessary component of a successful strategy in that it is able to generate a sustainable competitive advantage for a business. However, it is not sufficient: an organisation must consider other issues as well as innovation if it is to develop an effective strategy. Nevertheless, by following the theory of Drucker and learning from the practices of Apple, management can promote innovation in organisations. And if this is done effectively, innovation can play a key role in what every business organisation seeks: a competitive strategy which adds real value. References: Drucker, P. (1964). Managing for results: economic tasks and risk-taking decisions. California: Harper Row. Drucker, P. (1992). The age of discontinuity: guidelines to our changing society. 2nd ed. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. Elmer-DeWitt, P. (2008, March 3). Americas Most Admired Companies 2008. Retrieved November 24, 2009, from Fortune Web site: http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2008/fortune/0802/gallery.mostadmired_top20.fortune/index.html Fisher, A. (2008, March 3 ). Innovation Rules. Retrieved November 24, 2009, from Fortune Web site: http://money.cnn.com/2008/02/29/news/companies/fisher_amac.fortune/index.htm 2008 Gabriel, Y. (2008). Organizing Words: A Critical Thesaurus for Social and Organization Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Grant, R. M. (2005). Contemporary strategy analysis. 5th ed. London: Wiley-Blackwell. Henry, A. (2008). Understanding Strategic Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hindle, T. (2008). Guide to Management Ideas and Gurus. London: Profile Books. IMD. (2008). Tesco: Keeping the Hard Discounters at Bay? Switzerland: IMD International. Johnson, G., Scholes, K., Whittington, R. (2008). Exploring corporate strategy: text cases. 8th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education. Kay, J. (1995). Foundations of corporate success: how business strategies add value. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kay, J. (2009, March 15). History vindicates the science of muddling through. Retrieved December 13, 2009, from John Kay Web sit: http://www.johnkay.com/in_action/604 Kotler, P., Armstrong, G. (2008). Principles of Marketing. 13th ed. London: Pearson Education Ltd. Morris, B. (2008, March 17). What makes Apple Golden? Retrieved October 27, 2009, from Fortune Web site: http://money.cnn.com/2008/02/29/news/companies/amac_apple.fortune/index.htm?postversion=2008030309 Thompson, P., McHugh, D. (2002). Work Organisations. 3rd ed. London: Palgrave.

Sigmund Freuds Influence upon Salvador Dali Essay -- Art Analysis

The beginning of the twentieth century was a fascinating time for modern man. Artists, musicians, novelists, inventors, and scientists were reveling on new ways of experiencing life. The shadows of the past and the dawn of the new era opened the minds of many who relished constant change. Science and medicine were evolving, and one man in particular sought to expand knowledge and understanding. Sigmund Freud, the most renowned, thought provoking psychologist to have ever lived, opened an exciting chapter in the study of the mind. Without a doubt, Freud had influenced, and inspired artists searching for something new. The world of psychology and art were interweaving and promising a bold new path. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) studied medicine, science, and philosophy as an introduction to the study of the human mind. Freud desired to have a thorough understanding of the inner workings of the conscious and subconscious condition. It was noted, â€Å"Sigmund would become thoroughly absorbed in his research, so much so†¦he couldn’t stop wanting to study†. (Masson, The Life of Simund Freud) He graduated high school in 1873, and received a doctorate degree in 1881. Freud was enamored with all specialties of science, and conducted research and experiments with notable scientists of the late nineteenth century. Freud’s first foray into psychiatric medicine was in 1883 studying neuropathy. Soon afterwards, he studied hypnosis. Freud’s enthusiasm to decipher the mysteries within the mind was unmatched, and psychology was being rejuvenated. Known today as the founder of psychoanalysis, Freud wrote a monumental and highly criticized book, The Interpretation of Dreams. Started eight years prior to its publication in 1900, the study was part autob... ...was exponentially successful at painting the mind Freud intellectualized. Works Cited Bradbury, Kirsten. Essential Dali. Bath: Parragon, 2000. —. Essential Dali. Bath: Parragon, 2000. Freud, Sigmund. Beyond the Pleasure Principle. New York: Norton, 1989. Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff. "The Life of Sigmund Freud." Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams, The Illustrated Edition. New York: Sterling, 2010. 168. Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff. "The Life of Simund Freud." Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams, The Illustrated Edition. New York: Sterling, 2010. 65. Robert Descharnes, Gilles Neret. "Art of the 20th Century: Salvador Dali." n.d. A World History of Art. 21 4 2012 . Wood, Dr. Jonathan. "Introduction: The Essential Dali." Bradbury, Kirsten. The Essential Dali. Bath: Parragon, 2000. 11.

How Going to College Becomes a Process of Unlearning Essay

This was my reaction after reading Jorge Bacobo’s college uneducation. How can you ever imagine that going to college becomes a process of unlearning? Just look at this scenario. For all of your life, you have dreamed of entering college and you have spent a total of 10 years in elementary and high school to prepare yourself and only to find out that once you stepped in this institution, it becomes a different world all of a sudden. The ideal bubble that pops out of your mind suddenly bursts and you came to realize that after reading a selection in your GE class, all of your efforts have become useless. You, yes you unknowingly is a victim of college uneducation. How ironic, right? How could you ever waste your time memorizing the book and all the principles of sciences only to find out that after an exam is finished, you tend to forget everything? How come you have forgotten your existence here on earth and disregarded the most important thing of the world called life because you are preoccupied of all the assignments, thesis, lab reports, quizzes and exams? How did education evolved to memorization and book worship? How come you cannot answer a simple question without relying on Google or your Encyclopedia? How come you have become a slave of technology instead of you using it? I repeat, how ironic this is. It is a slap in the face because it is the truth. Now, do you call yourself educated? So this is college uneducation – a word unrecognized by Microsoft Word, a newly-discovered term by an author through his observations of what have become of the college students nowadays. Book worship. This is a very rampant activity of the students nowadays. When you ask someone a question, one answers like a robot controlled by the book he has read. This starts the death of critical thinking and sound mind reasoning. Our professor in our Genetics class even worsens this scenario. It is understood that everything we learn in our major subjects must have a r eference and everything we speak in the class should be quoted from an author. However, how can we become educated when everything seems to be a copy paste of the things we ourselves have not experienced? The book answers it all. Then if you become unstoppable saying your answer, confident of what you are saying, the professors says, â€Å"From where did you get that? Who is the author of that?† So this is how books became the students’ gods, worshipping them overnight and forgetting them everything all at once? Professional philistinism. For me, this is like programming the students of what they are to become – specialists in their own fields resulting to narrowing their entire lives to overspecialization. Maybe our professors can be blamed for this since instead of inflicting to us the core values of our existence in this planet, such as realizing how to achieve higher thinking and deep feeling, and appreciating the aesthetic refinement and intellectual pursuits, we are being confined to set our hearts in becoming specialists. As a Fisheries student, we focus on all the areas of the fish beginning from its genetic constitution until how it behaves in migration so that it can be caught by the fish farmers to lay the fish on our plates for food. Our professors keep on saying that one day, one of us will become an expert of this and that and so we have to really study hard on our field. As a result, we end up being slaves of our profession and remain ignorant on the artistic and cultural values around us. Jading dullness of modern life. Unlike the old education, the new generation education does not anymore cultivate the heart. We cannot control the release of the new iPhone or iPad in the market so as we cannot control how the new education brought about by modernity evolves into a way in which forgets how beautiful this world is. Everyone is addicted to Facebook posting their selfies, hashtagging, tweeting on Twitter, uploading a video in Instragram and the like. All assignments can be done by copy-pasting, and getting information from the cannot-be-trusted Wikipedia; and just by one single click, you thought you already have found what you have been looking for. All the formula, equations, scientific names and essays appear on screen which your brain refuses to digest. How easy. How convenient. How fast it is do what you call research. However, can your laptop release nectar which invites the colorful butterflies to come around? How can’t anyone appreciate the rainforests of Miag ao and the rich culture it has? You have to ask yourself: when was the last time you jogged in the campus, breathing in the freshest of the air, taking in the singing silence of the salty air of the OWL waters, or ran barefoot on the grasses of fishbukid? This should have been what education is also all about but now it seems that everyone is a failure. Misguided zeal. Our passion has shifted into a direction that beclouds our vision of the broader perspectives of life as a result of continually pushing ourselves to highly specialized training. How can we be effective in demonstrating the life formulas after we graduate if even now when we are still in college, we have not fully crossed the advanced line of human thinking? Our professor in our Statistics class always allows us to open our notes on the formulas during exams since according to him, if we will be working, reality is that we will still look at our books as a basis. However, there are no books for life formulas just like statistics. Life is not all about standardizing the solutions but rather mastering ourselves alone because no one knows us that well except ourselves. The author’s ideal college student is the wise individual who has unveiled the mysteries of his life, the one who is happy of his existence, has a sense of patriotism, is simple but knows how to defend his virtues without relying on the complexities of rules. On the other hand, honestly, my ideal vision of an Iskolar ng Bayan is someone who is a critical thinker. An Isko also knows how to interpret graphs and charts in literatures when he is told to do so. He envisions his future landing a job to help his fellowmen. Finally, an ideal Iskolar ng Bayan has an overwhelmin g love for his country. Maybe it is not too late to add Bacobo’s ideal college student to my list. A well-rounded education does not only deal with the truths and facts the books and our teachers offer. Art and philosophy is also important because only in art do we find the values of beauty which enables us to appreciate life and human existence as a whole. Philosophy should never be taken for granted since even if we are asked of any question, at least we are able to defend ourselves and prove that we really are educated. In the end, it is not about what we learn or how much we learn, but it is always about the process of how we learn and apply it to real life scenarios because common sense is not always common anymore. Honestly, I dominantly agree with the author for the reason that college students are nowadays really uneducated according to the context he presented. However, there are still a few individuals who do not possess such kind of thinking. And of course, I would not want to allow myself to be called UNEDUCATED. #

Why is Aluminium utilised in the contemporary world?

Aluminium is used extravagantly in the contemporary world, primarily due to its unique structure and desirable properties. Further, aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust; thus, scarcity is not a problem. It is a member of the Boron group of chemical elements, and is ‘the most widely used non-ferrous metal’ (Planet Ark, 2010). It has the symbol Al, and its atomic number is 13. It is necessary to consider the fact that ‘pure aluminium is not often used as it has poor mechanical properties. It is usually alloyed with other metals or silicon’ (Chemical Industry Education Centre, 2011). A key area in which aluminium alloys are utilised is for the construction of aircraft and rockets. Aircraft manufacturers use high-strength aluminium alloys for the construction of aircraft and rockets. This is because aluminium (the predominant element of the alloy) is able to be compounded with other metals and substances, is highly malleable, resistant to corrosion and consists of a high strength to density ratio, in comparison to other metals. ‘Aluminium is used in virtually all segments of the aircraft, missile and spacecraft industry-in airframes, engines, accessories, and tankage for liquid fuel and oxidizers’ (Davis, 2000).Further, Aluminium 7075 is an aluminium alloy that is used heavily in the construction of aircraft and rockets (The Aluminum Association, 2008). Aluminium consists of a low ionisation energy, as well as a relatively high atomic radius, in comparison to other metals. The ground state valence electron configuration of Aluminium is 3s2 3p1 (Web Elements Ltd, 2011). Consequently, Aluminium comprises of three valence electrons, which are able to be shared with other elements, or in this instance, metal atoms. In addition, as aluminium has a low ionization number, 6.0 Electron Volts (Ev), as well as moderately low ionisation energies, this implies that the valence electrons of aluminium atoms are not strongly held by the nucleus, and are thus, delocalized. Delocalized electrons are not restricted to one atom or another; they are distributed across several atoms in the solid. Thus, valence electrons can move freely out of the influence of their kernels (atomic orbit/structure minus valence electrons). Consequently, aluminium, and other metals, has free mobile electrons (Tutor Vista, 2010). In addition, the bonding in metals is often described through the â€Å"electron sea model†. Another reason as to why Aluminium is able to be compounded with other elements pertains to its electronegativity. Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons (Clark, 2009). The Pauling Scale is used to measure the electronegativity of a particular element. Metal's reactivity is dependent on their electropositivity; thus, a metal with a higher value in the Pauling Scale is less reactive than another metal with a lower value in the Pauling Scale (Tutor Vista, 2010). The electronegativity of aluminium is 1.61 Pauling units (Pu) (refer to table 3), whereas the electronegativity of copper is 1.65 Pu and iron, 1.83 Pu (refer to table 3). Thus, aluminium is more reactive than copper and steel, and is able to be adeptly bonded with other elements. (Other factors are involved) Malleability is the ability of a metal to exhibit large deformation or plastic response when being subjected to compressive force (Engineers Edge, 2012). The key reason as to why Aluminium is highly malleable pertains to its polycrystalline structure. The polycrystalline structure of aluminium consists of various dislocations, or crystallographic defects. The presence and movement of these dislocations, gives rise to characteristic and desirable metallic properties, for instance, malleability (Davyson). Aluminium is highly resistant to corrosion. This is primarily because a thin visible oxide forms instantly, when the metal is exposed to the atmosphere. These substances are formed as aluminium has the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p1, and oxygen has the electron configuration 1s22s22p4; this means that aluminium loses 1-3 valance electrons to oxygen, yielding aluminium cations with a 3+ charge, as well as oxygen atoms with a 2- charge. This is an example of an ionic bond. In addition, when Aluminium oxide is formed, it consists of a noble gas configuration, and; therefore, is balanced as well as stable. The formation of Aluminium oxide can be represented by the following formula: 4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s) Further, this oxide layer is one of the main reasons for aluminium’s good corrosion properties; it is self-repairing if damaged, and is stable in the general ph range 4-9 (SAPA Profiles UK Ltd, 2010). When aluminium is used for the construction of aircraft and rockets, it is often anodized to improve strength, and colour (Davis, 2000). Aluminium 7075 possesses an incredibly high strength to density ratio. The maximum/ultimate tensile strength of the alloy varies from 40000 psi to 78000 psi, depending on the grade of the temper (Alcoa, 2011). It is strong, with strength comparable to many steels (iron). The tensile strength of iron (Fe) is approximately 40,000 psi (All Metals & Forge Group, 2011). Aluminium 7075 has a density of 2.8g/cm ³; where as the density of steel is 7.87 g/cm ³, approximately 282.07% greater. The low atomic mass, 26.982 AMU, and high atomic radius of aluminium, 182pm, relate to the principal reason as to why it has a low density, in comparison to iron. Iron, on the other hand, has an atomic mass of 58.845 AMU and an atomic radius of 172pm. Aluminium consists of a face-centred cubic (fcc) crystal structure, whereas iron has a body-centred cubic structure. The atomic packing factor (APF) of a face-centred cubic crystal structure is 0.74, whilst the APF of a body-centred cubic crystal structure is 0.68. Although aluminium comprises of a more compact atomic structure, the fact that Aluminium has a higher atomic radius, as well as lower atomic mass, in comparison to that of iron; thus, having less mass in a certain space than iron, allows it to have a lower density. This pertains to the fact that density is equal to mass over volume (d=m/v). Aluminium is used extravagantly in the contemporary world, primarily due to its unique structure and desirable properties. 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